Month: April 2026

Damophon, son of Philip of Messene, is the best-known sculptor of the mature Hellenistic period in Southern Greece. He specialized in creating statues depicting exclusively gods and heroes. The classical elements of his divine and heroic figures were, to a certain extent, dictated by the traditional, conservative nature of this category of works. He worked primarily in marble, but also in wood and bronze. In his marble works, which were usually colossal in size, he occasionally used the technique of acrolith, but more commonly that of segmental construction. In other words, he constructed his figures from many separately carved pieces of marble, which he assembled using metal fasteners and adhesive. The technique of segmental construction, which makes use of even the smallest pieces of this precious material, was unavoidable for colossal and boldly designed works, since it was impossible to quarry a sufficiently large single block of marble. Thanks to the traveler Pausanias, who held Damophon’s art in particularly high regard, we know of at least fifteen of his works (five of which are polychromatic compositions), erected in the sanctuaries of four cities in the Peloponnese. Nine of his religious sculptures were located in the sculptor’s birthplace, Messene, two in Aegion, the seat of the Achaean League, three of his works in the Arcadian capital of Megalopolis, and one religious composition in the Arcadian town of Lycosura. Among these works, the colossal tetramorphic group from the Temple of the Virgin Mary in Lycosura was discovered during an excavation in 1910.

A representative work of his artistry and skill in rendering delicate, translucent fabric while simultaneously highlighting the plasticity of soft, feminine flesh is the surviving members of the marine troupe—a Triton and two Tritonides—from the armrests and backrest of the marble throne of the goddesses at Lycosura. Damophon was summoned by the Eleans to Olympia to restore the gold-and-ivory cult statue of Zeus, the work of the great Phidias, which was renowned in antiquity, and was particularly honored for his work by the Elean council. Recent excavations in Messene have unearthed trunks and fragments from all of his works that were once housed in the Asclepieion of Messene: the triad of Asclepius, Machaon, and Podaleirios, the ten-figure composition of Apollo and the Muses, Thebe and Heracles, Tyche, as well as Artemis Phosphorus. An epigraphic monument from the 2nd century B.C. from Messene provides new information (beyond what Pausanias provides) regarding his artistic activity both in Lycosura in Arcadia and in other cities of the Peloponnese, Central Greece, and the islands. Damophon was a prominent figure with financial power and political influence in the city of Messene. His reputation as a great sculptor and master of all forms of statuary extended beyond the borders not only of Messenia but also of the Peloponnese. His heyday appears to be reasonably well-defined as falling between the years 210 and 180 B.C. His works should not be regarded as a classical reaction following the Asian Baroque, but rather as original neoclassical creations, which appeared contemporaneously with—or even earlier than—the great achievements of Pergamon. His heyday coincided with the heyday of his hometown, Messene, before it was forced, by Roman intervention, to join the Achaean League permanently in 182 B.C. to the Achaean League against its will.

What we know from Pausanias and other ancient authors is not only confirmed but often supplemented by the inscriptions. Pausanias notes, among other things, the existence of a sanctuary of Demeter and statues of the Dioscuri, Castor and Polydeuces, located between the marketplace and the sanctuary of Asclepius. Excavations have uncovered the remains of this sanctuary, the identification of which is confirmed by a bronze shield bearing an inscription from the 4th century BC found in a deposit within the sanctuary: TO POLYDEUCE | WAS DEDICATED | BY KALLIPIDAS | AND HIS FOLLOWERS.

The architectural complex with its four colonnades, the peristyle courtyard, and the large Doric temple at the center has been identified as the sanctuary of Asclepius mentioned by Pausanias based on the combination of information from two inscriptions. The first attests that Marcus Caesius Gallus, who served as treasurer and lieutenant general, INSPECTED | THE FOUR STOAS OF THE ASCLAPIUM AND THE OVERLYING PARETIDES NEAR THE KAISAREION.

The text reveals the topographical relationship between the four-columned Asclepieion and the Caesareion—also known as the Sebasteion—which was the place of worship for Augustus and the Sebastoi. The identification of the Sebasteion was made possible by the discovery of the second inscription. It is a resolution referring to repairs carried out during the first fifteen years of the 1st century CE on important public buildings and sanctuaries in the city (BCH 109, 1985, 597–607). Erected by the secretary of the assembly, the column bore the inscription “PARA TO SEBASTEION” and was found in its original position in front of the central staircase of the north wing of the complex. Its discovery in the atrium of the area containing votive inscriptions dedicated to Asclepius and Hygieia confirmed its identification as the Asclepieion (PAE 1962, 112c, no. 8, and PAE 1971, 166, no. 6). The small houses in the west wing of the Asclepieion, as evidenced by their architectural form and the complete absence of offerings and altars, were not places of worship; but housed statues of Asclepius, his children, Apollo, the Muses, Heracles, the city of Thebes, the Theban Epaminondas, Tyche, and Artemis Phosphorus. The statues, with the exception of the iron figure of Epaminondas, were the work of the Messenian sculptor Damophon, according to Pausanias (4.31.10). The identification of the niches with the statues was made possible by the discovery of a resolution stele in the northernmost niche (K). The resolution (42 CE) is a decision by a body of delegates to honor their secretary, Mnasistraton Philoxenides, and provides for the erection of the stele “PARA TON NAON THS APTAMITOS.” The identification of House K with the Artemision was also confirmed by votive inscriptions (2nd century B.C. – 3rd century A.D.) dedicated to Artemis Orthia, which were found inside the house. The city’s stadium was identified as early as the 19th century based on the visible remains, while the location of the gymnasium—which Pausanias merely mentions—was determined by inscriptions. These include lists of adolescents, commissions of gymnasiarchs and adolescents, votive inscriptions to Heracles and Hermes, and finally, inscriptions attesting to the dedication of a temple to Hermes and Heracles, as well as the construction and repair of the Gymnasium’s Propylon.

The text reveals the topographical relationship between the four-columned Asclepieion and the Caesareion or Sebasteion, a place of worship dedicated to Augustus and the revered emperors. The identification of the Sebasteion was made possible by the discovery of a second inscription, a resolution referring to repairs carried out during the first fifteen years of the 1st century A.D. on important public buildings and sanctuaries in the city. Under the supervision of the Secretary of the Conference, the column bearing the inscription was erected NEAR THE SEBASTEION and was found in front of the central staircase of the complex’s north wing. The discovery of inscriptions dedicating offerings to Asclepius and Hygieia confirmed that the sanctuary was identified with the Asclepieion. The halls in the west wing of the Asclepieion were not used for worship; but housed statues of Apollo and the Muses, Heracles, the City of Thebes, the Theban Epaminondas, Tyche, and Artemis Phosphorus. The statues, with the exception of the iron statue of Epaminondas, were made of marble and were the work of the Messinian sculptor Damophon, according to Pausanias (4.31.10). The assignment of the Houses to specific statues was made possible by the discovery of an inscribed column bearing a resolution in the northernmost House (K). The resolution (dated 42 CE) is a decision by a body of delegates to honor their secretary, Mnasistraton, son of Philoxenides, and provides for the erection of the column NEAR THE TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS. The identification of House K with the temple of Artemis, the Artemision, was also confirmed by votive inscriptions (from the 2nd century B.C. – 3rd century AD) dedicated to Artemis Orthia, which were found inside House K.

The city’s stadium was identified as early as the 19th century based on the visible remains preserved at that time, while the location of the Gymnasium, which was housed in the colonnades surrounding the stadium, was determined by inscriptions. These include lists of adolescents, dedications by gymnasiarchs and adolescents, votive inscriptions to Heracles and Hermes, and finally inscriptions attesting to the dedication of a temple to Hermes and Heracles, as well as the construction and repair of the Gymnasium’s Propylon.

The inscribed stones also revealed cults in the city of Messene that Pausanias does not mention, either because they were not active in his time or because he himself did not consider them worthy of note. A dedication to Apollo Agyeus dates to the 3rd century B.C. In the area between the Agora and the Asclepieion, at its northwest corner, archaeological excavations have brought to light a small temple dedicated to Orthia Artemis. The identification as Orthia was based on the discovery of clay figurines of the goddess and a pillar with an inscription (3rd century B.C.) that once supported a small bronze statuette of Artemis. Northeast of the village of Mavromati, roughly halfway to the summit of Ithomi, at the site of Spelouza, the French archaeologist Philip Le Bas discovered the foundations of an Ionic temple in 1844. An inscription from the 3rd century B.C. (IG V 1, 1442) led him to identify the small temple as a sanctuary of Artemis Limnatis. The inscriptions also contribute to a more complete understanding of the history of Messene, sometimes confirming what we already know from ancient authors, and sometimes offering entirely new insights. Two incomplete inscriptions partially preserve the texts of treaties: The first is a treaty between the Messenians and the Macedonians; the second is a treaty between King Lysimachus and the Messenians (306–281 BCE).

Resolutions from foreign cities (Eretria, Naupactus, Thebes, Smyrna, Demetriada, etc.) honoring Messinian judges, or resolutions by the Messenians honoring foreign judges, attest to Messene’s relations with other cities from the 3rd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D. As evidenced by two fragmentarily preserved resolutions, the Messenians accepted the proposal of the Cephalonians to participate in a sacred contest that the latter had just established. From another incompletely preserved resolution (IG V 1, 1426) we learn that the Messenians granted full citizenship to thirty foreign horsemen, likely citizens of the neighboring city of Amphia, because they had sided with the Messenians, perhaps during the siege of Messene by Demetrius the Besieger (295/4 B.C.). The artistic work of the Messinian sculptor Damophon of Philippi is highlighted by the honorary decrees of seven cities (Lycosura, Lefkada, Krania, Milos, Kythnos, Gerinia, and Oiantheia), inscribed on a tall Doric column erected at his funerary monument in the Asklepieion around the middle of the 2nd century B.C.

We know about Messene during the Roman period from three extensive texts concerning the demarcation of the borders between Messene and Sparta (IG V 1, 1431), the repair of public buildings, and the imposition of the so-called “octal” tax (IG V 1, 1432). Many commemorative inscriptions carved on the pedestals of statues honoring Roman emperors and officials have also survived. Athletic activity in the Stadium and the Gymnasium is documented in the lists of competition organizers and adolescents, as well as in the votive inscriptions of gymnasium directors and winners of competitions held in domestic or foreign cities. Finally, the funerary inscriptions contribute primarily to the study of topography (in determining the location of cemeteries) and the biographies of Messinian citizens and foreign residents of the city.

Coinage began shortly after the founding in 369 B.X. of autonomous Messene, the political and economic center of Messenia, which continued to play a leading role in coin production in the years that followed. It was the only city in the region to issue a relatively significant number of coin series from the 4th century B.C. through the early 3rd century A.D., with brief periods of inactivity. Notable highlights during the 3rd century and the early 2nd century include the rare tetradrachms of Messene with iconographically identical depictions on both sides, as well as the well-dated tetradrachms struck by the city (featuring Hercules and Zeus holding an eagle) in the style and name of those of Alexander the Great around 190 B.C. The year 191 B.C. marks a turning point for Messene, as it was forced to join the Achaean League. Perhaps then, or a little earlier, it began issuing large bronze subdivisions, always featuring Demeter and Zeus on the obverse, but now also featuring the names of the mint officials on the reverse, next to the city’s monogram. At the same time, in the first half of the 2nd century B.C. and as part of its obligations as a member of the league, Messene minted silver trioboli featuring the common allied iconographic types (Zeus—Achaean monogram in a wreath), adding only the monogram or the city’s symbols as a distinguishing mark.

During the years when Augustus was laying the foundations of the Roman Empire (27 BCE and thereafter) the city of Messene appears to have been able to issue only one new series of bronze coins, and even then with depictions that were not typically Messenean: the head of Heracles and a club. In the post-Christian era, it also issued several new series featuring the head of Tyche of Messene with a turreted diadem consistently on the obverse and Zeus Ithomatas on the reverse and, for the first time, Asclepius. There is a noticeable fixation on the ancient and glorious past, even though Roman authority left no room for doubt.

The pottery of Messene traces the city’s history from its founding in the 4th century B.C. through the late Roman and early Byzantine periods. Of particular interest is the pottery from the Hellenistic period, dating from around 320 B.C. to the 1st century B.C., which reflects the styles and general trends of the era. The end of the 4th century B.C. also marks the end—the demise—of painted pottery. It was replaced by monochrome vases, either entirely black (melanophane) or entirely red (erythrophane). The Terra Sigillata, or Pergamenes (from Pergamon in Asia Minor, where they first appeared around 150 B.C. –50 B.C.) and feature impressed or even relief decoration. Their production continued in Italy (where they are called Arretine, from Arezzo) and throughout the East until the 7th–8th centuries A.D. A group of the latter is known as African ware (from workshops in North Africa). These are mainly household items (shallow and deep plates). The category of monochrome black-figure pottery also includes the so-called Megarian (mainly skyphoi) with relief decoration, typically floral, but also featuring animals or scenes from the Iliad, in which case they are called Homeric skyphoi. Megaric skyphoi were very widespread from approximately 250 to 100 B.C.

The most richly decorated vases can be divided into two broad categories: dark-figure (with a dark ground) and light-figure. The first category includes the so-called West Slope vases, which appeared in Attica in the 4th century B.C. and continued to be produced in local workshops until approximately the 2nd century B.C. The light-colored category includes: a) the Lagynos group, found in the eastern Adriatic around 150 B.C. (on a white slip, with mainly plant-motif decorations in black or brown), b) the Hadra vases of Alexandria (circa 260–210 B.C.), mainly hydria whose bodies are covered either with a white slip (in which case they bear multicolored decorations) or with a yellow slip (in which case the decoration is in black or brown). These vases were typically used as urns in tombs.

The purpose of the conservation work at Ancient Messene is to deepen our understanding of the past by using safe methods for the examination, conservation, and preservation of our cultural heritage. The structure and composition of ancient artifacts or monument components, as well as the extent of their deterioration, are determined through analysis. The “Demokritos” National Center for Scientific Research in Natural Sciences, the Stone Center, the University of the Peloponnese, the Technological Educational Institute of Athens, and other institutions have conducted archaeometric analyses on material samples from the archaeological site, providing useful information to archaeologists and conservators. Both the monuments and the artifacts very often provide opportunities for research projects (theses), student internships, and volunteer work.

FINDINGS

A large number of excavation finds (sculptures, pottery, glass, bone, and metal objects, coins, etc.) are conserved in the conservation laboratory, which is housed within the Museum. They are always treated with respect for their aesthetic and archaeological value.